It is wajib
(obligatory) for Muslims to study
everything which is necessary for
the physical and spiritual well being
and development of the Muslim community.
The waajibaat is known as wajib e
kifaii. This means that the
obligation is on the community as a
whole; but when an individual or a group
of people endeavour to devote themselves
to the required sciences, then the
obligation is lifted from the rest of
the community. This applies to all
fields of knowledge.
One of the most
important sciences where experts are
needed is the science of religion
- shari’a. It is wajib for a group of
people to devote themselves to the
science of religion so as to provide
guidance for the Muslim community.
The Qur’an exhorts us
in this matter:
“..Why should not a
group from every section of the
believers go forth and become learned in
religion; and to warn their people when
they return to them, that they may
become aware?”
Qur’an - Suratut
Tawba - 9:122
Those who take up
this noble task are known as the
mujtahideen. They are also
known as fuqaha (singular - faqih). A mujtahid is one who
does ijtihad.
The literal meaning
of ijtihad is to strive with
one’s total ability and efforts to reach
a goal which in this case is to
endeavour to deduce the divine laws of
shari’a from the reliable sources and
proofs. To reach the stage of
Ijtihad therefore is the capacity to
give an expert opinion in the matter of
religion.
The ijtihad that is
forbidden (haram) is that where a
mujtahid gives a rule by his own
personal judgement, that is, one
based neither on the Qur’an nor on the
Sunnah.
The word marja’
literally means one to whom we turn
to (do ruju’). He is one who is a point
of reference.
There are many
pre-requisites of ijtihad:
i)
Learning the Arabic language to
the extent that is required. Knowledge
of the colloquialism of Arabic and the
language of the people to whom the
Qur’an and the sunna was addressed to.
ii)
Commentary (tafseer) of the
Qur’an.
iii)
Logic (mantiq). Every branch of
learning in which reasoning is used
needs logic (understanding).
iv)
The study of Ahadith.
v)
Knowledge of the transmitters of
ahadith (rijal), to the extent where one
is able to discern the validity of the
ahadith.
vi)
The study of the principles of
fiqh (jurisprudence).
vii)
Thorough research and study of
the views of others.
viii)
Review of the verdicts and
narrations of the Ahlus Sunnah.
ix) Striving to make use of all of
one’s abilities in deducing the rules.
Once these
pre-requisites have been met, then to be
able to derive the laws of Shari’a a
mujtahid uses the following four
sources:
1) The Qur’an :-This
is no doubt the first source for the
laws and regulations of Islam.
Approximately one thirteenth of the
Qur’an pertains to laws.
2) The Sunnah : This
means the words, actions and assertions
of the Ma’sumeen. The study of the
narrators is an important part in
asserting the validity of the hadith.
3) Ijmaa (Consensus)
:-Consensus means the general agreement of
the ulema of a particular period on a
particular issue. Consensus in it’s own
right is not binding, and must be
supported by the Sunnah.
However, the Ahlus Sunnah believe that
complete agreement of all the Muslims of
one period on an issue is a divine
revelation and it cannot be wrong.
4)Aql (Reason) :-What
is meant here is that sometimes a law of
shari’a is determined by the proof of
reason.
One of the obvious
elements of Islam is that each command
(amr) of Shari’a is there to meet the
best interests of human beings and each
prohibition (nahyi) arises from the
necessity of preventing the corruption
of the human being.
Thus, because the
laws of shari’a are centred on the
wisdom of what is best and worst for the
human being physically and spiritually,
they will correspond to the laws of
reasoning.
Therefore, if we
suppose that in some case there is no
law communicated to us in the Qur’an or
in the Sunnah, the wisdom of the other
judgements of shari’a will automatically
discover the law for the case in
question.
e.g. At the time (and
place) of the Prophet (S.A.W.)
there was no addiction to drugs like
Marijuana, and we have no narrated
proofs of it by name in the
Qur’an, Sunnah and consensus. With our
reason and knowledge, and on the basis
of ‘a form of corruption which is
essentially to be avoided’, and because
we know that whatever is harmful to
human beings and a corruption of them is
haram in the view of Shari’a, we realise
that Marijuana is forbidden. Here, we
have a basic principle to work on.
However. Qiyaas
(analogy) is forbidden. This is where
one deduces a law due to it’s
resemblance to another law based on
opinion and imagination rather then
reason and certitude. Among the ulema of
the Ahlus Sunnah, Abu Haneefa considered
qiyaas (analogy) to be the fourth
source.
Imam Ja’fer As-Sadiq
(A.S.) tried to show Abu Haneefa the
error of qiyaas - It is reported that in
a conversation about the subject, Imam
(A.S.) asked him: “What is more
important? Salaa or Sawm?”
Abu Haneefa replied:
“Salaa!”
Imam said: “Then why
do women have to repay their qadha sawm
during their monthly periods and not the
qadha salaa?”
“What is more najis? Urine or stool?”
Imam asked
Abu Haneefa replied: “Stool!”
Imam said: “Then why
do you need water to make the area tahir
after urine, but in the case of stool
paper will suffice?”
Other necessary
conditions for being a mujtahid
Imam Ja’fer As-Sadiq
(A.S.) is reported to have said:“....If
there is anyone among the fuqaha who is
in control over his own self, protects
his religion, suppresses his evil
desires, and is obedient to the commands
of his Master (Allah), then the people
should follow him.”
A Mujtahid therefore,
must also be a free man of legitimate
birth who is past the age of puberty,
sane, a Shia Ithna asheri and adil (not
only just but also one who obeys all the
waajibaats and keeps away from the
muharramaat).
“...But as to those
amongst the fuqaha, who safeguards his
soul, takes care of his deen, opposes
his desires, and obeys the commands of
his Lord, then it is for the people to
do his taqleed..”
Aimma (A.S.)
According to common
sense, anyone who has not attained the
level of knowledge that will enable
him/her to deduce religious laws for
him/herself, must turn to a person who
has specialised in this field. Just as
we voluntarily follow the advice of a
doctor when we need medical attention,
and firmly believe that the advice will
cure our illness and protect us from
infection; the same way we follow the
guidance of a Mujtahid who knows the
laws of shari’a so that he may lead us
correctly and save us from an erroneous
way. It is this following which is
termed taqleed. The follower of a
Mujtahid is known as a Muqallid.
Taqleed therefore is
not imitation as an animal would do but
a conscious decision by an individual to
accept the opinions of a learned
scholar. It is the mujtahid who takes
the responsibility of expressing his
opinion and not the followers.
There are three
recognised ways:
i)
By his/her own personal knowledge
and experience (assuming that one is
oneself an aalim and able to identify a
mujtahid).
ii)
By the testimony of 2 aadil,
knowledgeable persons who are
religiously aware (people who are able
to know another’s knowledge).
iii)
By a degree of popularity which
leaves no doubt as to a person being a
mujtahid.
Most ulema maintain
that we must follow a mujtahid who is
‘A’lam’ - the most learned in deriving
the laws of shari’a from the sources
discussed. Marhum Ayatullah Syed Abul
Qasim Al-Khui (A.R.) and Ayatullah Syed
Ali Al-Husayni Seestani both confirm in
their risalah that the qualification of
being ‘A’lam’ is essential for a
mujtahid whose taqleed is to be done.
The ‘A’lam’ may be
recognised in any of the 3 ways in which
a mujtahid is recognised.
It follows, therefore
that to recognise an A’lam mujtahid, one
has to be fairly aware of the principles
of Fiqh and it’s applications. This is
why we are told to depend on Ahlul
Khibra - those who are well versed
and experienced. Ahlul Khibra is a term
used for groups of
mujtahideen.
Sometimes, it is
difficult for the Ulema to distinguish
whom among all the mujtahideen is the
most learned, and as a result a muqallid
may have to choose a Mujtahid from
several ones.
Why is there a
difference of opinion amongst different
mujtahideen on a particular subject?
Firstly, it is
important to know that the differences
in opinion are never contradictory. i.e.
it is impossible to find a mujtahid who
will say that one action is wajib and
another saying it is haram.
The existence of
differences of opinions (not difference
in principles) is not a sign of a defect
in the quest of knowledge; it is rather
a sign of progression in knowledge
towards perfection.
Differences of
opinion are found in all sciences, not
just in fiqh.
A waliyul faqih is
one who is a guardian of the fuqaha. He*
is not only learned in the science of
religion as the other fuqaha; but also
one who establishes social justice
amongst people. He is accepted by
Ahlul Khibra as the waliyul faqih.
*As suggested by some
Ulema, this authority may be a
composition of mujtahideen (a central
authoritative body) if needed.
What is the
difference between marja’ taqleed and
waliyul faqih? By Ayatullah
Ruhullah Al-Musawi Khumayni (A.R.)
i)
Besides having the knowledge of shari’a,
justice and ijtihad, he must have a full
grasp of politics of religion,
sufficient courage and qualities of
management for leadership and must be
aware of the social and political issues
of the day.
ii) When
the waliyul faqih issues an order (amr)
according to the best interests of the
Umma, that order becomes wajib on
everyone - even those who follow another
marja’ e taqleed.
e.g. When
Mirza Muhammad Hasan Shirazi was the
waliyul faqih, he issued an order
likening the use of tobacco to fighting
against Imam e Zamana (A.S.). This was
in the best interests of the Muslim Umma
for in 1891 the British wished to
manipulate the economy of Iran through
the tobacco industry to colonise Iran as
they did to India. Everyone, including
the other mujtahideen followed this
order and defeated the British plan.
iii) The
position of marja’ taqleed can be
occupied by several mujtahideen at the
same time but there can only be one
central authority for wilayatul faqih,
otherwise the result would be disunity
and discord in the Umma.
Click here for More Info
on Wali e Faqih
What is Taqleed?
(Almutazar.com )
Taqleed means to comply
with or subscribe to the
edicts of a jurist
regarding practical
affairs of religion.
These practical affairs
are collectively
referred to as
'Furu-e-Deen' or
fundamentals of
religion.
Necessity of Taqleed in
Islamic practical laws
Taqleed becomes
necessary largely due to
the average Muslim's
inability to comprehend
and derive Islamic laws
all by himself. Given
man's hectic lifestyle,
it would take a better
part of his lifetime to
study the Quran and
traditions in order to
formulate these laws and
statutes. Taqleed,
therefore, affords the
Muslim a more viable and
logical option. However,
one thing that must be
borne in mind is that
this compliance with
(the jurist) is for
practical tenets
(Furu-e-Deen) only and
not for one's beliefs.
Taqleed maybe broadly
classified under four
heads viz.:
(i) The unlearned
following another
unlearned.
(ii) The learned
following the unlearned.
(iii) The learned
following another
learned.
(iv) The unlearned
following a learned.
The
latter, i.e. the
unlearned conforming
with the learned alone
appeals to man's
rationale. Taqleed, as
is observed from our
lives, is not restricted
to Islamic practical
laws alone. We visit
doctors and comply with
their advice and
prescriptions. We
consult lawyers and
conform to their
recommendations and
strategies. It is
inherent in man's nature
to resort to experts in
fields wherein he lacks
expertise. And practical
matters of the faith are
no different. We
therefore comply with an
expert in the field of
practical religious
affairs too. This
expert, or to be more
precise, jurist, directs
us in religious
fundamentals by issuing
edicts and decrees. He
is referred to as a
'Mujtahid' and his
edicts and decrees are
collectively called as
'Ahkaam'.
A
Muslim is therefore
faced with two options.
He could either
endeavour to become a
jurisprudent (Mujtahid)
or alternatively, he
could subscribe to a
Mujtahid's verdicts. A
person who undertakes to
be a Mujtahid must
however, excel in
certain branches of
knowledge before he
finally goes on to
become a Mujtahid. The
aspirant for this
position should have
considerable command
over Arabic grammar and
literature, theology,
logic, exegesis, the
knowledge of narrators,
traditions, etc.. Most
of us (at some time or
the other) have chanced
upon the book compiled
by a Mujtahid. This book
commonly referred to as
'Tauzeehul Masail', is a
compilation of the
Mujtahid's verdicts and
decrees. These verdicts
are termed as 'Fatwa'.
The 'Tauzihul Masail' is
a comprehensive
compendium that guises
years of painstaking
research and toil.
Clearly then, becoming a
Mujtahid is a no mean
achievement.
As
mentioned earlier,
Taqleed, is not
permitted in the
principles of religion,
i.e. Divine Unity and
Justice, Prophethood,
Imamate and the
Resurrection. These five
tenets of Islam are
collectively known as
ÅÍe ¾ÌuA. or the
principles of religion.
These shall be explained
in detail under the
title, 'Roots of
Religion.' A Muslim is
expected to subscribe to
these beliefs not by
referring to a Mujtahid,
but by applying his
faculties of reasoning
and intellect. Through
his rationale and
deduction alone he
should testify to the
belief in one God, His
Prophets, the Imams
(a.s.) and the Day of
Judgement.
We
shall now learn about
different aspects of the
Mujtahid in a little
more detail viz. his
fatwas, the criteria and
conditions necessary for
the Mujtahid, his fields
of study, etc. This will
provide the reader with
some invaluable insight
as to who is a Mujtahid.
Who is a Mujtahid?
Regarding the term
'Mujtahid', it finds its
origin in the word
'Ijtahada' which means
to strive, to endeavour
or to struggle. A
Mujtahid is one who
endeavours in the way of
Allah to derive laws and
decrees regarding the
religious fundamentals.
He endures all kinds of
hardships and
difficulties so as to be
able to pronounce the
Fatwa (verdict) in the
light of Quran,
traditions of the
infallibles (a.s.) and
the principles of
jurisprudence. History
bears witness to the
fact that our Imams
(a.s.) have encouraged
such individuals who
aspire to become
Mujtahid.
Criteria for a Mujtahid
- Unarguably, the
most crucial
criterion for a
Mujtahid is
knowledge. This
knowledge must be
comprehensive,
ranging over
different fields. A
Mujtahid is expected
to master the
following sciences :
- Arabic - so
that he can
comprehend the
meaning of Quran
and traditions
of Holy Prophet
(SAWS) and Holy
Imams (a.s.) in
order to infer
and pronounce
the fatwas.
- Exegesis of
Quran - so that
he can perceive
the commands of
Allah.
- To
comprehend the
traditions with
respect to its
context and
condition which
enables him to
discern between
bona fide and
fabricated
traditions.
- He should be
well versed with
Logic and
Theology as the
principles of
jurisprudence
(Usool-e-Fiqh)
are based on
them.
- He should
know branches of
Mathematics like
algebra,
geometry, etc.
so that he is
able to
determine the
truth in matters
of inheritance,
qiblah, zakat
etc..
- He should
possess the
knowledge of the
judgments of
previous jurists
so that he is
aware of all the
precedents.
- He must be
able to reply
all the
reasonable
queries of the
people.
In additions to
above, there are
some other
prerequisites that a
Mujtahid has to
fulfill:
- He should be an
adult (i.e. more
than 15 years of
age).
- He should be
sane.
- He should be a
male.
- He should not be
illegitimate.
- He should be
just (i.e. should
refrain from sins,
big and small in the
open).
- He should be
alive.
- He should be a
Shia Ithna Ashari.
Apart
from the above, he must
possess certain other
traits such as patience,
piety, forbearance.
etc.. However as
mentioned above, the
most important feature
of an aspiring Mujtahid
is knowledge. And as per
the principles of
jurisprudence as well as
traditions, Taqleed
should be done of the
most knowledgeable
(Aalam) of the
Mujtahedeen. This gives
us some insight about
the importance Islam
attaches to knowledge.
What is a Fatwa
(religious verdict)?
When a Mujtahid, after
much endeavor and
struggle, finally comes
to a conclusion on a
predicament, he issues a
decree termed as a
'Fatwa'. This decree is
necessarily based on the
four basic parameters
i.e. Quran, Traditions,
(earlier) edicts of
Mujtahideen and the
intellect. The Fatwa
will be deemed as
authentic, only and only
if it is in accordance
with the above mentioned
four basic criteria.
Thus any Fatwa that is
in contravention of the
Quran, traditions,
previous verdicts and
the intellect will not
pass muster and will be
rejected. This
derivation of religious
verdicts is not as easy
as it is made out to be
by some people. It is
the culmination of
dedicated, painstaking
research.
WHO IS A
FAQIH:
As it is not in our capacity to discover
laws concerning physics and logics
unless we are well acquainted with - the
same idea can be said concerning Ijtihad
and formulating Islamic laws.In order to
be Faqih, one should be able to discover
secondary legal laws from their original
sources including the Holy Qur'an and
the pure Prophetic tradition and other
sources. In other words the Faqih is a
person who has the greatest expertise in
deriving the rulings of the Shari'ah
from the sources. He should be familiar
with Arabic language to an extant that
he understands the Qur'an and the sunnah
both linguistically and legally and
which fits the spirit of revelation and
the Message. He should be absolutely
well-acquainted with the Holy Qur'an and
its sciences to an extent which enables
him to understand and discover legal
laws and judgements. He should be
well-versed with the Prophetic
tradition to the extent he should
distinguish true and satisfactory
hadiths trough studying them and their
chain of transmitters in addition to his
understanding of the sunnah and its
circumstances and having the ability to
discover laws which go with the Qur'anic
concepts. Among the qualities necessary
for a Faqih is his being
acquainted with what other scholars
discover in the studies and sciences
which help in organizing and
comprehending the jurisprudential
thought and deepening the procedure
of Ijtihad (exercising of independent
judgements) like the science of
principles of jurisprudence, dogmatic
theology, logics, philosophy,
jurisprudence...etc.
Thus, the experts (fuqaha') of
Shari'ah today upon whom Muslims depend
for laws as did those before them are
the most excellent example in science,
comprehension, and legislation. Another
important qualification which should be
found in the Faqih (mujtahid) is
faithfulness, loyalty, honesty,
integrity, objectivity because he is the
seeker of the truth and the one who is
responsible before the Almighty Allah
concerning his judgements, and legal
rulings. He should also be well known
(distinguished) for intelligence,
literary taste, an accurate
comprehension manners and ability of
discovering and extraction in order to
practise his responsibility (post)
successfully and precisely.
Consequently, Ijtihad and its
distinguished experts and scholars are
those who spend all their efforts and
abilities sincerely in order to supply
instinctive knowledge of Ijtihad and the
skill of discovering the laws. In
addition to this, Islamic law lays down
that a mujtahid should be a free man and
of legitimate birth who is past the age
of puberty, and is sane, and just
besides possessing other moral and legal
qualities, such as piety and abstention
from all that the Shari'ah forbids and
fulfillment of all its obligation.
However, it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish whom among all the mujtahids
is the most learned and as a result more
than one mujtahid may be followed in
taqlid at one time (though not, of
course, by the same person), as is the
case at present, but any such
multiplicity does not result in any
practical disagreement on legal matters
among the followers of the school of
Ahlul-Bait.
A theology student
has three levels to go through to become
an mujtahid or a faqih. These are as
follows:
I.
Introductory Level (muqaddamat)
This level of
theological education concentrates an
Arabic grammar, syntax, rhetorics etc.,
as well as some literature and logic.
Theological seminaries mostly teach
general books in this level. The reason
for the emphasis on Arabic is that the
Quran and all the important Islamic
books and the ahadith are in Arabic. It
would normally take seven years to
complete this stage. The following books
are taught in this level in the order of
priority:
Jami’ul-Muqaddamat
is in 14 small volumes, in Farsi and
Arabic. Arabic grammar, syntax, logic,
method of reading and exercises in
conjugation are taught. The objective of
the course is to teach introductory
Arabic syntax to the student and to
prepare him for learning the subsequent
courses. Books recently used for this
course are The New Arabic, and simple
Grammar.
Siuti
explains Arabic syntax. The new book
used for this course is Al-Qava’id
ul-Assassi (Basic Principles).
Mughani
completes the grammar and syntax courses
and teaches the student Arabic grammar
in relation to literature. Tahzib is the
new book used for the course.
Hashieh
teaches the student basic logic. The new
book used in the field is Al-Mantiq (The
Logic).
Mutaval, or a summary
of it, teaches rhetorics and speech. The
objective of the course is to
familiarise the student with the art of
speech and rhetoric and to enable him to
understand the Quran and more difficult
texts. The new books used for the course
are Balaghat (Eloquence) or Javahir
ul-Balagha (Essence of Eloquence).
II.
Inetermediate Level (sat’h)
Sat’h
means superficies, and is referred to
reading directly from the books and
learning from them. When a theology
student completes the requirements of
the introductory stage, he is promoted
to the intermediate level. Here, he is
taught Islamic theology and principles
which he learns to reason out. It
normally takes eight years to complete
the intermediate level. Only the larger
and more important theological
seminaries run the intermediate course.
The following books
are taught in this level in order of
priority:
Ma’alem ul-Usool
teaches
the student basic theology in a reasoned
manner.
The new book used for
the purpose is a summary of Ma’alem.
Qavanin,
authored by Mirza-e Qummi, teaches
theology in more depth. The new book
used is Usul ul-Fiqh.
Lum’ah,
by Shahid Thani, teaches the foundations
of canonical theology (ijtihad).
Makasib,
authored by Sheikh Murtadha Ansari,
teaches canonical problems and profound
answers to them and aims at getting the
student to master the rules of Islamic
theology and its application.
Rasa’il
teaches rational reasons of theology and
aims at getting the student to master
the rational reasons of theology.
Kefayat ul-Usool,
authored by Mulla Mohammad Kazem
Khurassani, teaches theology and its
principles as well as its problems, and
establishes full mastery of theology and
its problems. Theology students may also
take selective courses at this level, in
the following order of priority:
Manzuma
teaches a series of basic philosophy
lessons and is a prerequisite for
theology students who plan to read
philosophy. The length of this course
together with isharat is three
years.
Isharat
teaches philosophy and gnosticism.
Bidayat ul-Hakama
teaches a summary of philosophical
titles and topics in one year.
Nahayat ul-Hakama
teaches philosophical topics in the
intermediate level in two years.
Assfar
is a descriptive course of philosophical
topics at the advanced level, taught in
three years.
Sharh-e Tajrid
teaches natural sciences and divinities
as viewed by orators and aims to teach
the theology student the arguments in
two years.
Maqamat-e Hariri and
Maqamat-e Hamedani
familiarise theology students with
Arabic literature. Each would take two
and a half years but Mu’alaqat-e Sab’a
may also be read together with one of
them.
III.
Advanced Level (kharij)
Having mastered the
lower courses and understood the
narrations and hadiths, the theology
student enters the advanced level with
the permission of his teachers and upon
sitting some kind of examination.
This level, in fact,
is the stage of research for a theology
student, leading him ultimately to
become an Islamic jurisprudent or
theologian. (marja’ taqlid) themselves.
On this level, the
teacher discusses the opinions of the
important Islamic canonists and those of
his own and allows his students to enter
debates with him. This stage of
theological education may go on for as
long as needed for the theology student
to acquire the power of interpreting
theological issues , and form his own
opinion and judgement about them.
Nevertheless the
students may leave from theological
seminaries at any stage they wish. Only
a smaller number continue their
theological education to become scholars
and a larger number drop out after
completing one or two stages. No
certificates of graduation are issued by
the seminaries. However, when a theology
student becomes a scholar, his teacher
or teachers issue a certificate at his
request which authorises him to use his
own judgement concerning theological
issues. Ijtihad) means the power to
refer to the four sources of reason, the
Quran, Tradition, Concensus and Wisdom,
and interpret the theological issues on
their basis.
Topics
As explained before,
topics of study in theological
seminaries consist of Arabic literature,
principles of theology, theology and
rational sciences which include logic,
arguments and philosophy. The first
three are more in demand than the last
in which works by Islamic philosophers
such as Mulla Sadra and Mulla Haadi
Sabzevari are taught.
In the advanced
level, other courses are also taught.
These include:
Rijal, which is a
research into biographies of hadith
tellers.
Diraya,
which discusses the documents on the
basis of which hadiths are told, and the
course through which a document is
traced back to the original text.
History of Islam,
Ethics, Interpretations, astronomy
are other courses taught. Moreover,
studies of sociology, psychology,
English or other foreign
languages have become more common in
the past few years.
Characteristics
of Theological Education
Education in
theological seminaries has certain
characteristics which distinguish it
from modern education. The most
important of those is that neither the
period of education, nor the manner of
graduation is pre-planned and
compulsory. The theology student chooses
his own teacher ever since he begins his
theological education and continues to
study with the same teacher as long as
he himself deems fit.
Moreover, in the
absence of a system of issuing
graduation certificates, theology
students are free to take their courses
at their own pace. The same freedom is
apparent in teaching. A theology student
who has been studying for a few years,
has the right to enter debates with his
teacher and take fault with his
statements. To prepare for lessons,
theology students usually consult
various theology books and go through
the opinions of theological authorities.
Upon receiving a lesson, they debate
the lessons among themselves in order to
master essence of the lessons. This
method of studying helps theology
students to develop in debating and
discussions. They gain more skills by
preaching to the public, usually to earn
an income.
More at
intensive process of study & teaching in
the howza
